What Makes Us Human? Book Summary - What Makes Us Human? Book explained in key points

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What Makes Us Human? summary

Name: What Makes Us Human?
Rating: 4.1 (20 reviews)
Author: Charles Pasternak, editor

Charles Pasternak, editor

The Reasons Why We are So Different

4.1 (20 ratings)

31 mins

Topics

The Human Condition Language

Table of Contents

What Makes Us Human?
Summary of 13 key ideas

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Key idea 1 of 13

What’s in it for me? Find out what it is exactly that makes people human.

Since the beginning of time, we have pondered what it is that distinguishes humans from other living beings. How are we different from apes or worms, fish or even plants? Which of our talents or faculties set humans apart as unique?

Whether it’s our ability to think or to organize in groups, our genetic makeup or our language ability, what humans do and how they do it is the subject of these blinks. You’ll explore the thoughts of a range of experts on one of the most fundamental questions in life: what makes us human? You’ll learn about the special path of human evolution and the skills that set us apart from other species.

In these blinks, you’ll also learn

why young children see nothing wrong when “drinking” from an empty cup;
how some experts believe humans are part angel and part ape; and
why even our primate ancestors weren’t too keen on all-raw diets.

Genetics might explain the root of our unique cognitive abilities, but there’s more to the story.

There are plenty of ways in which humans differ from other living creatures. After all, we cook our food, use language and even contemplate the meaning of life, while other animals do not.

But all these differences share a common thread: they all have to do with our superior cognitive ability. So, where does our greater capacity for cognition come from?

Geneticist Walter Bodmer says that it boils down to the specific genetic sequences that humans have. He believes that genetic differences distinguish Homo sapiens from other species, namely chimpanzees, who are our closest evolutionary ancestor and from whom we evolved.

Human and chimpanzee DNA is very similar, possibly sharing up to 99 percent of our genetic material. That one percent translates to a 250-gene difference between people and monkeys.

It’s possible that from those genes, humans gained the ability to think.

The problem is, it’s difficult to determine exactly which genetic sequences account for this cognitive difference. Yet biostatician K.S. Pollard in 2006 showed that science is close to figuring this out.

The work of Pollard and her colleagues led to the identification of 49 areas of mammalian DNA that had remained largely unchanged over millions of years – that is, until Homo sapiens split from chimpanzees. At this point, these DNA areas in humans evolved at a rapid pace.

It stands to reason that these areas could be the genetic key to our unique cognitive abilities.

So while a human’s capacity for cognition is likely a result of genetics, we can’t assume that genes alone are responsible. Our cognitive prowess has many by-products, such as musical and mathematical abilities, which can’t be explained genetically, because they aren’t a direct result of natural selection, the prime engine of evolution.

Culture can shape cognitive characteristics, too. For instance, a baby born to an isolated tribe in the Amazonian jungle would think and act like a Westerner, if raised in a typical British home.

Memes are like genes, in that they’re inherently selfish; this trait helps them, and us, survive.

So if genetics are just one piece of the puzzle, what is it that makes us human? Is it our large brains? Or perhaps our ability to develop languages and build societies based on complex cultures?

According to British author Susan Blackmore, our uniqueness boils down to the fact that we’re meme machines.

Memory allows people to “transcend” time, reliving the past and imagining the future.

When we reflect on a memory, we’re “transcending” time. This uniquely human ability is made possible through our linguistic capacity and, according to psychologists Michael C. Corballis and Thomas Suddendorf, it’s what makes us human.

There are two types of memory: declarative and nondeclarative. The former refers to memories that can be consciously recalled and therefore “declared.” They can be described using language, unlike nondeclarative memories.

The human capacity for imagination sets us apart from other animals.

Genetically speaking, humans are nearly identical to apes. So why is it that humans have developed mathematical theorems, composed music and written books, while apes sit around and eat bugs off each other?

According to psychologist Robin Dunbar, we are unique because of our imagination. Humans have the ability to step back from the world and ask, “Could things be different from how we are experiencing them?”

Before we began using our voices to communicate needs and ideas, we relied on our hands.

It is often said that language is what sets humans apart from other animals. Yet physiologist Maurizio Gentilucci and psychologist Michael C. Corballis hold a different view.

They believe that it is not language but speech that makes us human.

The human mind is more than just a brain; spirituality stems from humanity’s “half-angel” side.

Genes and culture play a major role in shaping who we are, but according to Reverend Richard Harries, humans are also molded by our ability to rationally reflect and engage in spiritual quests.

In his opinion, the human mind is much more than just a brain.

Our capacity to understand, as well as change our behavior, makes us truly human.

In recent years, scientists have made great leaps in understanding the human brain and how it works. But human consciousness, or the awareness of self, remains a mystery.

Social scientist David Hulme believes that the mind contains a non-physical force that goes beyond the physical brain, and because of this, explorations of the brain will never fully explain the mystery of the human mind. Yet Hulme’s idea doesn’t necessarily validate Christianity’s claim of an immortal soul within a perishable body.

Developing larger brains helped our primate ancestors survive during successive ice ages.

So while we are descended from apes, how did our primate ancestors turn into the walking, talking, questioning creatures that we have become today?

Geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer says that physical and behavioral adaptations, such as a larger brain, enabled our ancestors to survive amid harsh climatic conditions.

Intense curiosity is a uniquely human characteristic, one that inspires us to explore our world.

We humans have always been keen to explore the world around us. This desire is driven by our curiosity, and according to the editor, biologist Charles Pasternak, it is this trait that makes us human.

Pasternak says that all organisms exhibit curiosity, but humans more so than any other. For instance, plants are curious in that they seek out sunshine and grow away from shadows, a trait known as phototropism.

Humans evolved the ability to express abstract concepts like “love” through learning language.

Humans alone use symbolic systems such as language. According to paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall, humans are unique in that we’re symbolic creatures.

After all, only humans can mentally divide the world into symbolic entities and further, name these different pieces of existence. These words and names can serve as stand-ins for concrete objects like “table” and “tree,” or they can refer to abstract concepts like “love.”

Humans are highly social creatures, a trait our ancestors adopted early to better compete with predators.

Psychologist Andrew Whiten claims that humans are the most social creatures on earth, and thus it’s our sociability, not our intelligence, that makes us unique. Whiten says humans have a deep social mind, consisting of four distinct elements.

The first element is mind-reading, meaning the ability to predict and explain the actions of others relative to a person’s state of mind, like thinking, wanting and believing. In other words, being able to see that other people are guided by a set of beliefs is a social skill.

Understanding cause and effect is uniquely human and helped us to develop technology.

Biologist Lewis Wolpert believes that our ability to perceive the relationship between cause and effect distinguishes us from other animals. This ability, which particularly sets us apart from chimps, has helped us develop tools, language and advanced technology.

Causal understanding is fundamental to the process of human thought. Consider how children ask tons of questions, wanting to understand everything about the world around them. By the age of two, a child knows that a rolling ball will make a standing ball move when the two collide.

Gourmands, rejoice! You are human because you cook.

So we’ve learned that we’re intelligent, social animals that understand cause and effect and use language to communicate ideas both concrete and abstract.

Primatologist Richard Wrangham argues however that biographer James Boswell’s description of a human as a “cooking animal” is both biologically and evolutionarily correct.

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What is What Makes Us Human? about?

In What Makes Us Human (2007), a group of experts shares ideas on this centuries-long question. These blinks plumb the depths of the mystery of our species, to discover why humans alone cook food to eat, think creatively and understand cause and effect.

Best quote from What Makes Us Human?

To be human is to imitate. – Susan Blackmore

—Charles Pasternak, editor

Who should read What Makes Us Human??

Scientists, philosophers and theologists
People who want to explore questions about human life

About the Author

Biochemist and author Charles Pasternak previously taught at Oxford University, where he founded the Oxford International Biomedical Center. His grandfather is Leonid Pasternak, the post-impressionist painter, and his uncle is Boris Pasternak, the Nobel Prize-winning novelist and author of Doctor Zhivago.

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