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Name: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
Rating: 4.5 (276 reviews)
Author: David Hume

David Hume

A classic in modern philosophical literature

4.5 (276 Bewertungen)

24 Min.

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Western Philosophy Critical Thinking & Problem Solving Social Philosophy

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An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
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What’s in it for me? Uncover a philosophical classic and challenge everything you thought you knew in the process.

We moderns pride ourselves on our ability to reason. It’s through reason that we’ve discovered nature's secrets and set ourselves apart from the rest of the animal kingdom. It’s also through reason that we distinguish ourselves from the mythological dogmatism that defined previous eras.

But what makes us so sure that humans really are so reasonable? Is this belief founded on reason itself. . . or is it just another myth?

Well, if we could ask Hume, he’d say that our pretense to be rational beings is pure hubris. In his Enquiry, Hume carries reason to its breaking point by explaining why we actually have no rational basis for believing in almost any of the things we do. By following Hume’s logic, these blinks explain how he arrives at his remarkable conclusion that, whether we like it or not, humans are moved more by animal instinct than anything else.

In these Blinks, you’ll learn

what the game of billiards can teach us about the nature of cause and effect;
why it’s never rational to believe in miracles; and
why we have absolutely no reason to believe the sun will rise tomorrow.

All knowledge derives from experience.

David Hume was born in the eighteenth century, slap-bang in the middle of the Enlightenment. With the scientific method ascending to prominence in Europe, it was a time of unparalleled optimism in the power of reason to discover truth.

Over the course of this fruitful period, many great thinkers like Descartes, Locke, and Berkeley came up with novel ways to try and ground their philosophies in reason. But, despite their different approaches, all these philosophers made the same fundamental error – they all attempted to shoehorn their theological commitments into their rational philosophies.

In many respects, Hume’s empirical philosophy responds to these developments. On the one hand, Hume continued the rationalist thread of the Enlightenment by imploring us to justify our beliefs with reason. On the other hand, by limiting the scope of reason to the realm of human experience, Hume decoupled reason from the realm of speculation that requires theological beliefs, and thereby set the stage for a purely secular philosophy.

The key message here is: All knowledge derives from experience.

Hume’s entire empirical philosophy is built on one foundational distinction: the distinction between impressions and ideas.

Impressions are direct sensory experiences and emotions. For example, when you see the color red or when you feel angry, you’re experiencing direct impressions.

Ideas, on the other hand, come from the imagination or from memory. You have an idea when, for example, you close your eyes and conjure the color red or the feeling of anger. As they’re abstracted from direct experiences, we experience ideas as diluted and vaguer than the original impressions.

Now, since ideas are copies of impressions, it follows that we can’t have an idea until we’ve experienced the impression. You couldn’t, for example, really know what love is until you’ve actually been in love.

Of course, you might object that you have all sorts of ideas that you’ve never directly experienced. With help from the imagination, you can summon all manner of fictional worlds full of monsters and strange landscapes that you’ve never encountered in reality.

This is true. But, as Hume points out, the ideas of the imagination are all built out of simpler impressions that we’ve directly experienced. For example, we can imagine a mountain made of gold by mixing the simpler ideas of gold and mountain in our heads to form a new idea.

Since all ideas are derived from simple impressions, this provides us with a simple method for determining whether or not an abstract idea, such as God, has any meaning. All we need to do is point to the impression that produced it. If no impression can be found, then we have good reason to reject the idea as empty and groundless.

We have no experience of a necessary connection between events.

If everything we know comes from experience, this immediately raises a problem. How could we ever make predictions about the future? After all, we can never experience the future.

Thankfully, we can make use of a handy principle called cause and effect. In the past, we’ve learned that certain events cause other events. All we need to do is transpose that knowledge into the future and we have a method for making predictions about what’s going to happen.

Inductive reasoning can’t be justified rationally.

OK, so we might not directly experience a necessary link between cause and effect. But what if we could use reason to find out if there’s a connection?

Well, let’s give it a go. When we’re trying to determine a general theory, like the necessary connection of cause and effect, we usually use inductive reasoning. This is the form of reasoning used when we draw general conclusions from a synthesis of several specific observations. It’s the mode of thinking operating in the background when we make inferences about the future based on past observations, like inferring that fire will burn us again in the future because it has done so in the past.

Humans think instinctually rather than rationally.

So Hume has shown that we have no rational basis for making any inferences about the future. But don’t let this put you off planning for tomorrow!

Hume was the first to admit that there’s a natural limit to this kind of skeptical reasoning. We might not be rationally justified in believing the things we do, but that doesn’t stop us from believing them. All of us, and that includes philosophers, use inductive reasoning every day in pretty much every action we take. If we didn’t do this, we simply wouldn’t be able to live.

Human action is both free and determined.

If it’s true that humans are guided more by instinct than by reason, this raises another problem. If reasoning doesn’t have any influence on our behavior – if we’re just animals governed by blind instinct – then what room does that leave for human freedom?

This is really just a reformulation of the free will vs. determinism debate, which has been raging in philosophy for centuries. The debate considers how it’s possible to reconcile the fact that human actions are causally determined – in this case by our instincts – with our conviction that we have freedom over how we act in any given situation. The concepts of free will and determinism seem completely incompatible with one another.

It’s never rational to believe in miracles.

One of the reasons why Hume’s empirical philosophy was so radical and controversial back in the eighteenth century is that it provided rational grounds for rejecting miracles. Miracles were widely believed at the time and were often taken as evidence for religious doctrines.

Consider this curious example reported by a French cardinal in the seventeenth century. While on one of his travels in the French provinces, the cardinal wrote of having encountered a man who’d apparently regrown his leg. The townsfolk insisted that the man had gone many years with only one leg, but had recovered the missing limb after rubbing holy oil over the stump.

A healthy amount of skepticism contributes to a good life.

Hume’s empirical philosophy is based on the principle that the only way we can learn about the world is through sensual experience. Of course, Hume admits, this requires that we trust our senses to represent the world as it really is – and it’s far from obvious that they do.

We know, for example, that our senses often deceive us, such as when a boat’s oar appears crooked in the water, or when an object appears doubled when it’s held too close to the eyes.

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Worum geht es in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding?

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) presents a succinct summary of Hume’s empirical and skeptical philosophy, and is one of the most influential texts of the early modern period. In calling for the use of reason in rejecting the “superstitions” of metaphysical philosophy and religion, this text helped to furnish the philosophical basis for the scientific method that was then coming to prominence in Enlightenment Europe. Even today, Hume’s Enquiry remains one of the best introductions to modern philosophy.

Bestes Zitat aus An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

Be a philosopher, but amid all your philosophy, be still a man.

—David Hume

Wer An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding lesen sollte

Philosophy students looking for an introduction to Hume’s most important ideas
Rationalists who want to sharpen their reasoning skills
Anyone interested in the classics of Western philosophy

Über den Autor

David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and diplomat who’s remembered mostly for his radical philosophical empiricism. Often considered the greatest philosopher to have written in the English language, Hume is one of the key figures of the Enlightenment, and, indeed, the entire Western philosophical tradition. Another key Enlightenment thinker, Immanuel Kant, later credited Hume with waking him from his “dogmatic slumber.”

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