1491 Buchzusammenfassung - das Wichtigste aus 1491

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Zusammenfassung von 1491

Name: 1491
Rating: 4.5 (206 reviews)
Author: Charles C. Mann

Charles C. Mann

New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus

4.5 (206 Bewertungen)

30 Min.

Themen

Anthropology Colonialism & Imperialism US History Change & Evolution

Inhaltsübersicht

1491
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What’s in it for me? Discover the real New World

The first Europeans in the Americas often built their settlements on top of Indian settlements.

Sometimes, they used violence to drive the inhabitants out. Often, they didn’t need to, as the settlements were empty – the people who’d lived there were already dead. European diseases had traveled even faster than the settlers had. They left a trail of devastation behind them, wiping out an estimated 90 percent of a population that may have been as large as 100 million people.

This catastrophic and sudden collapse of Native societies shaped European perceptions. Settlers mistook overgrown farms for pristine wilderness and saw Indians as primitive people trapped in the Stone Age instead of as what they really were: the survivors of shattered civilizations.

In these blinks, we’ll be correcting the record as we explore how the Americas’ first inhabitants shaped the world around them.

Note on language:

Indigenous groups in North and South America prefer to be called by their specific tribal names. The author follows this custom, as do these blinks. When referring to the first inhabitants of the Americas in a more general way, the author uses the terms “Indians” and “Native Americans,” both of which are accepted by Indigenous groups. These terms are cultural and geographical categories, not racial ones – they’re the Western Hemisphere’s equivalent to “European,” not to “white” or “Caucasian.”

Along the way, you’ll learn

how Indians used fire to reshape the landscape;
why the Amazon isn’t as wild as you might think; and
how Mexican farmers changed the world’s diet.

Scholars studying native cultures have often missed the forest for the trees.

Northeast Bolivia, 1948. Allan Holmberg, a young American anthropologist, has just arrived in the Beni, a vast savannah stretching from the Andes to the Amazon.

Holmberg is here to study a local Indian group called the Sirionó. He’ll spend two years with them before publishing a book about their lives. His account paints a bleak picture.

Constantly hungry and wet, they move among makeshift camps and hunt game with crude longbows. As far as Holmberg can tell, they have neither art nor religion; they don’t count or farm.

He concludes that they’re living examples of humans in what he calls “the raw state of nature.” Like their ancestors, they eke out a tough existence in a hostile world that they lack the tools to change.

Until the arrival of Europeans, he adds, life must have been like this across the Americas. For decades, Holmberg’s verdict was the scholarly consensus. Today, though, a new picture is emerging.

The key message here is: Scholars studying native cultures have often missed the forest for the trees.

Holmberg wasn’t entirely wrong: the Sirionó really did lead extremely tough lives during the time that he spent with them. But things hadn’t always been that way.

In the early 1920’s, the Beni had been home to around 3,000 Sirionó Indians. They weren’t just nomadic hunters, either – they lived in villages and also grew crops. Two things changed that.

The first was disease. Over twenty years, smallpox and influenza epidemics reduced the Sirionó population from 3,000 to just 150 – a 95 percent loss in one generation. The second was state policy. As disease ripped apart Sirionó communities, the Bolivian government backed white farmers’ expansion into the Beni. The military hunted down Indians, who were sent to prison camps or forced into servitude on cattle ranches.

Holmberg believed that what he had seen was an unchanging and primitive people. But the wandering hunters he encountered weren’t relics of the Stone Age – they were the survivors of a recently shattered culture trying to evade an oppressive state. It’s as if an anthropologist had observed refugees from Nazi concentration camps and concluded that they came from a culture that had always been starving and shoeless. With hindsight, it sounds absurd, but that’s exactly the mistake Holmberg made.

He also overlooked clues that the Sirionó were newcomers to the region. There was their language, for instance, which is related to many indigenous languages across South America but none in Bolivia. There was also the landscape, which was full of the remnants of a much older Indian culture.

The Beni was home to an advanced pre-Columbian society.

The Beni extends from the cold and arid foothills of the Andes in the southwest to the warm and humid Amazon rainforest in the northeast.

Snowmelt and rain from the mountains flood its plains for six months. Then over the next six months comes the drought. The sun scorches the savannah into a sea of parched yellow grass.

Native Americans didn’t live off the land – they shaped their environment.

The earthmovers of the Bolivian savannah didn’t just produce pottery on a scale to rival ancient Rome, a city of some one million people. They were also industrious farmers.

They grew crops of beans, squash, and sweet potatoes in their raised fields, while their lomas – the raised mounds they created – supported orchards of fruit- and nut-bearing trees.

North American Indians used fire to redesign the landscape.

There are different ways of organizing a landscape. One option is to break it up into plots for particular uses, like planting orchards or catching seafood during seasonal floods.

In fact, this is a pretty universal human practice. While the Beni’s earthmovers were reshaping the savannah, European peasants laid out rectangular fields for wheat and set aside hills for grazing sheep. In the Andes, Indian societies terraced some 1.5 million acres of mountainsides to grow their civilization’s staple crop, the potato.

So many Indians died after 1500 that it changed the global climate.

If you analyze the air trapped in ice cores in places like Antarctica or examine the sediment in lake beds, you can get a pretty good idea of how much carbon dioxide was in the atmosphere in the past.

Using these methods, scientists have created a record of atmospheric CO2 levels over the last 800,000 years. When you plot those levels out on a graph, two things jump out.

Modern agricultural practices are destroying the Amazon rainforest.

Tangles of thick vines, putrid-smelling tropical flowers, endless layers of tree branches, beetles as big as butterflies, and butterflies as big as birds – the Amazon, as most people imagine it, teems with life.

But the rainforest’s vibrant canopy is deceptive: it masks an impoverished base. Stifling heat and endless rain erode the soil, washing out minerals and decomposing organic compounds. The orange-red earth that’s left behind is harshly acidic and nutrient poor. Ecologists call it a “wet desert.”

Lots of crops struggle in the Amazon, but fruit orchards thrive.

In the ’70s, Betty Meggers, an American archeologist, argued that Amazonian societies couldn’t have expanded beyond a population of a few hundred because of the forest’s ecological constraints on farming.

Extensive agriculture inevitably overtaxed the soil, she claimed, and any society that tried to grow enough food to feed large numbers of people ended up laying waste to its own foundations. Meggers’s argument influenced a generation of scholars and environmental activists, but new evidence suggests that Amazonian societies may have found a sustainable solution to the forest’s constraints.

Amazonian Indians discovered sustainable farming thousands of years ago.

In the ’90s, geologists took a closer look at the ground in which Amazonian fruit orchards grow.

This wasn’t the impoverished red earth that rainforests are prone to. This soil was dark, nutrient-rich, and packed with plant-friendly phosphorus, calcium, sulfur, and nitrogen.

Central American agriculturalists changed the way the world eats.

When did Indians first arrive in the Americas? Until fairly recently, most scholars believed that they crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia into Alaska around 13,000 years ago.

Archaeological evidence unearthed in the mid-’90s changed that picture. It now seems likely that Indians reached Chile 30,000 years ago, which means they must have arrived in Alaska even earlier.

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Worum geht es in 1491?

1491 (2005) is a study of the Western Hemisphere before 1492, the year in which an Italian sailor employed by the Spanish empire first set foot in the Americas. Within a century of Columbus’s “discovery” of the New World, some of humanity’s most sophisticated cultures had all but disappeared. In 1491, Charles Mann sets out to recover their ways of life and remarkable achievements.

Wer 1491 lesen sollte

History buffs
Myth-busters
Americaphiles

Über den Autor

Charles Mann is a journalist and author with a special interest in Native American societies and scientific subjects. He is a regular contributor to the Atlantic, Science, Wired, the New York Times, and National Geographic. His writing has received awards from the American Bar Association, the American Institute of Physics, and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

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