Purpose summary

What are the fundamental forces that shape human behavior? Some interpretations of evolutionary theory suggest that we’re merely products of our genes, destined to act out scripts written in our DNA. But things may be far more nuanced and complex than previously believed.

For much of the twentieth century, evolutionary theory held that natural selection acted primarily at the level of the individual organism. According to this view, traits that enhanced an individual’s survival and reproductive success would be passed onto future generations. Those that hindered these goals would gradually disappear. 

Human nature is characterized by a fascinating interplay of opposing tendencies: selfishness versus altruism, aggression versus cooperation, and lust versus love. These contradictory impulses create all the complex, contradictory behaviors that define the human experience. Let’s take a deeper look at them from an evolutionary point of view.

First up, selfishness versus altruism. On the one hand, individual-level selection seems to favor selfishness. Organisms that prioritize their own survival and reproduction outcompete their more altruistic peers. Yet on a group level, individuals who cooperate and act selflessly toward each other tend to fare better than groups governed by self-interest alone. As we learned in the previous section, kin and group selection offer a partial explanation for this. But evolution went so far as to make social bonds intrinsically rewarding as well. Humans have a powerful drive to form deep, meaningful relationships – even with non-relatives.

Through the lens of evolutionary theory, human nature appears woven from strands of both light and shadow. We are capable of astounding altruism and heartbreaking cruelty, of harmonious cooperation and brutal aggression, of enduring love and fleeting lust. These opposing tendencies are rooted in the multilevel selection pressures that shaped our species.

But are we merely puppets dancing to the tune of our evolutionary drives? The answer, it seems, is a resounding no. From the outside at least, it appears that we have free will to choose our path. We are able, at least in theory, to consciously reject our more destructive tendencies and embrace the positive aspects of human behavior. 

Given our dual nature and our free, but not indomitable will, how can you bring out the best in humans? 

Throughout history, many well-intentioned groups have attempted to create utopian societies by radically restructuring social norms and institutions. The Oneida Community, a 19th-century utopian experiment in New York attempted to replace traditional family structures with practices like "complex marriage", in which every man married every woman. Romantic partnership and child-rearing was meant to be collectively distributed. Yet this radical restructuring of social norms ultimately failed, quickly reverting to old forms of pair-bonding and parental attachment after the founder left the community.