Transcendence summary

A few short millennia ago, humans were marginal mammals, barely eking out an existence on the African savanna. Fast-forward to today, though, and we’ve become the dominant species on Earth. It’s an amazing ascent – but we didn’t do it alone.

These blinks tell the story of humanity’s rise by looking at our relationship with four crucial forces: fire, language, beauty, and time. This in-depth account of human history draws on fields like anthropology, environmental science, genetics, and psychology to understand how homo sapiens came to master the world around them.

In these blinks, you’ll learn

• what to eat in the Australian outback;
• how sundials set the tone for civilization; and
• why you can’t banter with apes.

On their own, ngardu seeds aren’t very appetizing. In fact, if improperly prepared, this Australian plant can be downright poisonous. Yet the Yandruwandha people, who are native to the outback, eat them all the time.

This aboriginal group knows the exact right process for grinding, straining, and, most importantly, cooking these seeds into nutritious bread. Their complex method was honed over generations and allowed them to thrive in an environment that would otherwise be too harsh for humans.

Culinary traditions like Yandruwandha’s are found all over the world. And, by allowing us to create food in even desolate habitats, they have helped us spread far and wide. But however varied these traditions may be, they all share one key ingredient: fire.

The key message here is: Fire helped humans become smarter, more social, and more powerful.

It’s hard to overstate the importance of fire in human history. It’s no coincidence that many cultures, from the ancient Greeks to the Ekoi people of Nigeria, have myths that tell of gods as the originators of fire. Modern scientists, though, tell a different story. They estimate that our human ancestors actually began making fires in East Africa’s Rift Valley, some 1.5 million years ago.

Harnessing fire was a game changer for humans for several reasons. For one, it allowed us to cook meat and plants. This simple step makes food more nutritious and easier to digest. Cooked meat, for instance, yields 40 percent more calories than its raw counterpart. All those extra calories helped our brains grow bigger and allowed our bodies to direct less energy toward our stomachs and more energy toward cognitive functioning.

The physical benefits of fire were compounded by its social benefits. Building and maintaining flames is difficult, so humans had to put their bigger brains to work developing tools to keep their hearths lit. And, of course, it’s costly to keep reinventing the wheel. So, humanity had to develop the social skills necessary to teach and pass on this information. Those groups that were best at communicating and improving on these techniques went on to grow and spread into new areas.

The more mankind’s knowledge grew, the more advanced its technologies became. In turn, these technologies could support larger and more complex societies. Having harnessed fire, for instance, humans learned to use it to transform mud into pottery. Then, they used that pottery to cook and store even more food. This abundance allowed humans to spend more time inventing better tools such as kilns and plows. As you can see, one small spark ignited an upward spiral of innovation that continues to this day.

Chimpanzees are astounding climbers, wonderful at grooming each other, and great at catching termites with sticks. But if you try talking with one, you’ll find they’re not the best conversationalists. So, why are we so much chattier than our closest primate relatives?

It’s partially due to the FOXP2 gene. This short bit of genetic code controls hundreds of different physical and cognitive traits associated with speech. Our version of FOXP2 is almost identical to that of chimps, but the small differences between ours and theirs give us a momentous edge when it comes to learning and using language.

Most chimps can actually be taught a few words and signs. But the average person can recognize about 42,000 words by the age of 20. This impressive ability to communicate has played a huge role in our history – and our success.

The key message here is: Language allowed humans to coordinate action and build lasting cultures.

Modern humans are born with an innate capacity to master language. This ability depends on mental and physical traits perfected over thousands of generations. Our bipedal posture, for instance, allows us to breathe more freely, while our low and flexible larynx lets us sculpt that air into hundreds of different sounds. Our brains have adapted too, cultivating essential language skills like pattern recognition and abstract reasoning.

Our species’ dexterity with languages gives it an incredible advantage over other animals. Through speaking and gesture, we can convey complex ideas and coordinate actions like hunting, trading, or building shelters. And, thanks to the invention of writing some 5,000 years ago, we can do even more. This astounding innovation allowed us to store and transmit information with high fidelity over vast distances and across many generations. 

Thanks to writing, you can read the 4,000-year-old epic of Gilgamesh just as an ancient Babylonian would. What’s more, you would probably enjoy it. That’s because, along with language, humans have developed a deep connection with storytelling and the narratives it contains. Across societies, we use stories to entertain each other, build empathy, establish shared values, and make sense of the chaotic world around us.

Storytelling is so powerful that it actually synchronizes the minds of the speaker and listener. Brain scans show that as each person imagines the actions or sensations in a story, their brains activate as if it were all really happening. This is why information organized as a story is 22 times more memorable than a simple list of facts. With such an intimate effect, it’s no wonder that some of our oldest cultural traditions are myths and legends passed down over millennia.

Picture a person wearing a piece of jewelry. What do you see? Perhaps it’s a queen decked out with an elaborate crown and scepter. Maybe it’s a young woman flashing a shiny diamond engagement ring. Or it could be a pastor with a simple gold cross. 

In all these cases, the accessories do more than just decorate. They tell a story about who each person is, what their values are, and where they belong in society. And the materials in each ornament have a deep connection to humanity’s history of travel, trade, and conquest.

Clearly, our aesthetic expressions are much more than trivial fads or superficial styles. Really, our desire to create and acquire beauty is a fundamental force in how we behave as humans. 

The key message here is: Beauty and aesthetics provide humans with meaning and motivation.

Our species is hardwired to appreciate beauty. For millennia, humans have sought the most fit and fertile mates by looking for certain visual cues that indicate health, such as facial symmetry and clear complexions. We almost universally find these features pleasing to look at. But, generally speaking, our conception of beauty is subjective and culture-dependent. What’s more, we use aesthetics for many purposes beyond just selecting partners.

Humans across cultures use artificial ornamentation like clothing, jewelry, makeup, and body art to symbolically structure societies. The Turkana women of Kenya, for instance, use colored necklaces to signify their status – yellow is for single women, while white is reserved for widows. And in feudal Japan, only royals were permitted to wear silk, while others, still seeking style, opted for bright and intricate tattoos.

Our pursuit of beauty has shaped the course of entire civilizations. Europe’s desire for precious metals and exotic spices kicked off the first sea voyages, which in turn led to the development of the slave trade and the colonization of the Americas. And earlier, there was the Silk Road. This vast network of trade routes spread innumerable commodities, ideas, and diseases across Europe and Asia. Yet it takes its name from the luxurious and aesthetically pleasing fabric that became its most prized trading good.

But it doesn’t stop there. Our appreciation for beauty may, in fact, underlie the very inventions of architecture and urban life. After all, some of our earliest permanent structures appear to be more about artistic expression than shelter. Just consider Göbekli-Tepe, in southeastern Turkey. Nomadic herders built this megalithic temple complex more than 12,000 years ago. And they decorated it elaborately. That means that even before the invention of agriculture, humans were coming together to create sites of beauty. The importance of aesthetics can’t be overstated.

Let’s travel 1.5 million years into the past. Somewhere in Africa, one of our ancient ancestors butchers an antelope carcass using a crude stone axe. She hews meat from bone and eats her fill. Then, she does something remarkable: as she walks away from the meal, she brings her axe with her to use again later.

In this scenario, the most amazing invention isn’t the stone in her hand. It’s something more intangible, located in her mind. It’s the very concept of “later.” While other primates would discard the tool after one use, this early human can conceive a future where the tool will be useful again. She understands time.

Today, thinking in terms of time seems like an obvious idea. But, actually, it’s an astounding cognitive leap that altered the fate of our entire species.

The key message here is: Our understanding of time helps us engage with the world in a rational way.

Like all animals, human bodies are intimately connected to the passage of time. Our circadian rhythms help us wake and sleep in sync with the sun, while our hormones regulate other biological rhythms like heart rate, hunger, and menstrual cycles. But the conscious experience of time – that is, the ability to remember past events and to forecast future developments – is uniquely human.

The capacity to conceptualize time is one of our oldest and most valuable technologies. Understanding the connection between past and present let our ancestors grasp important cause and effect relationships, such as the connection between mating and childbirth. And grasping the cyclical nature of the seasons helped us anticipate the best times to sow seeds and to harvest crops – two skills that were essential in the development of agriculture. 

Just how important time is can be seen in how much effort we’ve put into measuring it. As history shows, humans have always sought to make increasingly accurate time-telling devices. As early as 38,000 years ago, humans made ivory tablets engraved with detailed accounts of the lunar cycle. Some time later, the Romans perfected sundials to divide days into hours. And by the fourteenth century, European towns featured massive mechanical clocks to keep everyone on the same schedule.

Objectively measuring time changed every area of human life. Accurate clocks made it possible for ships to more easily navigate the seas; they opened the door for the physics experiments of the Enlightenment; and they enabled industrialists to organize workers according to hourly labor. In other words, time is a tool that has structured both our intellectual pursuits and our material production. 

Where our future path will take us is uncertain, but at least we know tomorrow is always coming.