S.P.Q.R. summary

As Livy’s story continues, it explains how certain Roman traditions began. The genesis of these traditions coincides with a time when Rome was ruled by kings. This period is called the regal period, and followed Romulus’s rule. During this time, six different kings helped shape the city.

However, many historians consider this a dubious claim. Since the regal period lasted from the mid-eighth century to the late sixth century BC, this would require each of the six kings to have spent over 30 years in power, which is highly unlikely for the time.

Lucius Junius Brutus is credited with calling for a Roman Republic. But no government is born overnight. Indeed, it was a gradual process that took decades, if not centuries.

One of the best indicators of when the republic actually began to take shape is contained in the Twelve Tables, a set of rules and standards that laid the groundwork for Roman law.

After taking over Veii and being sacked by the Gauls, Rome focused on increasing its manpower and transforming its army into a powerful, centralized organization.

What followed was a series of wars that put Rome on its path of extraordinary expansion.

In the fourth century BC, the ongoing battles led to more Roman citizens and more power, and the politics of Rome began taking shape.

While no one is certain exactly when the term “consul” was first used, or when it came to define the highest office in the Roman Republic, there is evidence that it was used in the third century BC. This is when it was inscribed on the tomb of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, the man who played a vital role in the military expansion of Rome and who served as consul in 298 BC.

Things were pretty tense in Rome when it came to politics. And, throughout the Roman empire, social tensions increased as more people and different cultures came together.

Between 146 and 88 BC, Rome continued to expand; it dominated North Africa, Greece and the rest of the Mediterranean. But things didn’t always go smoothly when Roman soldiers and governors occupied these territories.

Sulla’s move to control Rome was certainly an audacious one, and it set a dangerous precedent for other ambitious military leaders to come.

One such Roman general was Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, or Pompey the Great, who made a bold gambit to become consul.

Like Sulla and Pompey, Gaius Julius Caesar had made quite a name for himself in battle.

For Caesar, it was in the west, fighting the Gauls and taking a symbolic step into Britain. When he returned to Rome in January of 49 BC, he was ready to take power.

Both Pompey and Caesar possessed many of the qualities that came to define a Roman emperor; the first person to actually hold the title of emperor, however, was Caesar’s heir – his 18-year-old great-nephew Gaius Octavius. Or, as he would later be known, Emperor Augustus. He would go on to hold his position longer than anyone else had before – he ruled for more than 50 years, until his death in 14 AD.

As with many transitions of power, there was a period of unrest following the assassination of Caesar.

After the rule of Augustus, a string of 14 emperors followed. They became more or less known by their varying degrees of villainy or sadistic behavior. But how bad, or good, were these emperors, really?

These days, historians believe it’s likely that many of the unpleasant stories are nothing more than propaganda invented by their successors.

While there is little evidence about what emperors did behind closed doors, there are surviving letters and documents that paint a picture of what life was like outside the palaces.

For instance, there are diaries indicating that, relatively speaking, women had it better in Rome than in other cultures.

There is some evidence of homeless people in ancient Rome. Old signs have been found that warn people against squatting in public buildings.

But while there was a fair amount of urban poverty, there are more details surrounding the lives of people who could find work.

One could say that the downward trajectory of the Roman Republic started in 192 AD, when Emperor Commodus was killed and 100 years of constant civil war followed. During this time, one emperor after another came along, each unable to maintain power.

Another event that many point to as the beginning of the end occurred in 212 AD, when Emperor Caracalla suddenly declared all free people in the vast Roman Republic, from Britain to Syria, official Roman citizens.